Water Pollution

Small dams are effective against water pollution

The pollution issue is very complex issue to solve because of many different factors and variables involved in the whole pollution story. Every single day a new interesting study pops our broadening the reach of this global issue by adding new factors into the equation. One of the latest factors involved are small dams and reservoirs.

According to a latest study by Steve Powers, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Notre Dame's Environmental Change Initiative small dams and reservoirs play major role in pollution prevention by trapping various water pollutants.

This is said to be of particular importance in agricultural lands of the Midwest U.S., where there are lots of small, but aging dams that are „threatened by long-term structural decline and are also filling with sediment“. This ability of small dams and reservoirs to trap water pollutants is extremely important for the health of our environment because these small dams affect the movement of water and wastes through the environment.

Powers acknowledges that these dams are small individually but their total sum has a global surface area comparable to that of all large reservoirs added together.

This study also showed the negative environmental effects which were manifested in an increase in downstream transport of nutrient pollution after the dam was removed. Small dams affect greatly global water quality and thus we should make certain steps to prevent them disappear.

Many regions from all over the world are vulnerable to water quality changes caused by accumulation of sediment and phosphorus behind dams. Preserving small dams means not only improved water quality but also cleaner and healthier environment.

Reference : http://pollutionarticles.blogspot.com/

Global Warming

Global Warming  - "Global Warming Poses Serious Consequences For The Environment In The Future"

In case you have been out of the loop, global warming is gradually becoming a serious concern to our environment and our planet as a whole. In general, global warming is caused by carbon dioxide and other air pollution that is collection in the atmosphere. As it collects and builds up, it is little by little trapping the sun’s heat and warming up the planet.

So what does this mean for the environment? It is indeed warming up, but not so much that it is considerably noticeable. However, scientists predict that at this rate the average global temperature will be 3 to 9 degrees higher by the end of the century. In result of these rising temperatures, many states in the U.S. are already showing signs of the effects with some of the worst wildfire seasons ever in 2002.

In the same year, drought caused severe dust storms in states like Montana and Colorado, and floods created millions of dollars in damage to the states of Texas, Montana and North Dakota. Because of the continuous rise in heat, many mountains have been affected by their snow totals. Since 1950, snow accumulation has declined by 60 percent in some mountains and many winter seasons have become shorter.

Outside of the U.S., global warming has caused more than 20,000 deaths in Europe just in 2003 because of extreme heat waves. What is the scariest of all facts is the decline of the Arctic’s perennial polar ice cap. At this rate, it is declining at 9 percent per decade.

Every year, scientists learn more about the direct effects of global warming on the environment and what society can do to help the cause. There is no denying the fact that global warming is a serious issue and if it continues on the path it is heading, there is much more devastation to come. Some of the consequences that are to come include melting glaciers and severe droughts causing water shortages, rising sea levels will flood the Eastern coastal seaboard and warmer sea surface levels will fuel more intense hurricanes.

Today’s unstable weather and the futures predicted weather pattern can certainly cause a major catastrophe if we as society don’t stop it today. Things as simple as using a fluorescent light bulb over an incandescent light bulb can preserve energy. By saving energy, it will eliminate a ton of carbon dioxide pollution that is released into the air.

Little by little, more information is being released to the public about global warming and people are gradually becoming more aware of the problem. There is no room to wait for tomorrow to begin saving energy because the future lies within our hands. All it takes is a little effort from everyone in the world to save the future of the planet from the horrific consequences global warming could potentially have.

By: Joshua Spaulding

Article Source: http://www.bestglobalwarmingarticles.com

Economic Journal of Emerging Markets.

Economic Journal of Emerging Markets.  August 2011 3(2)  139-151


INDONESIAN TRADE UNDER CHINA FREE TRADE AREA

Abstract 

This paper investigates the implementation of CAFTA (China-Asean Free Trade Area) on the international trade flows across Indonesia, China and the rest of ASEAN using a gravitation model. It finds the evidence that the influence of diversion and creation effects on China are significant, while the influence of both effects on Indonesia are not significant. It also finds that the diversion effect, which leads to a decrease in society’s wealth, is greater than that of the creation effect. As a consequence, the gap across countries involved in the trade agreement is wider. 

Keywords: CAFTA, gravitation model, diversion effect, creation effect 
JEL classification numbers: F13, F14, F15 


Abstrak 

Tulisan ini menyelidiki penerapan CAFTA (China-Asean Free Trade Area) pada arus perdagangan 
internasional antara Indonesia, China dan anggota ASEAN yang lain dengan menggunakan model 
gravitasi. Penelitian menemukan bukti bahwa pengaruh diversi dan pengaruh kreasi terhadap Cina 
adalah signifikan, sedangkan pengaruh kedua efek tersebut terhadap Indonesia adalah tidak 
signifikan. Penelitian ini juga menemukan bahwa efek diversi, yang mengarah pada penurunan 
kekayaan masyarakat, lebih besar daripada efek kreasi. Akibatnya, kesenjangan di negara yang 
terlibat dalam perjanjian perdagangan menjadi lebih luas. 

Keywords: CAFTA, model gravitasi, pengaruh diversi, pengaruh kreasi 
JEL classification numbers: F13, F14, F15 

INTRODUCTION 

ASEAN and China have agreed to implement CAFTA (China-Asean Free Trade 
Area), a comprehensive economic cooperation, in 2002. The implementation will be 
conducted gradually over a period of 10 years. CAFTA is a form of agreement between the member countries to realize a free trade area by eliminating trade barriers 
in goods, both tariff and non tariff, increasing market access services, investment 
rules and regulations, and improving aspects of economic cooperation to promote economic relations in order to improve welfare of the members. 

The created economic region has a market of 1.7 billion consumers, with a total GDP of 2 trillion dollars. Total trade that took place in this region is estimated to reach USD 1.23 trillion. CAFTA is anticipated as a free trade area which has the largest market share in the world. Another aim is to encourage trade between ASEAN and China. ASEAN and China since 2000 have experienced a dramatic growth rate. 
Theoretically, the implementation of CAFTA is beneficial for the countries involved in it. With the removal of trade barriers, economic inefficiency is expected to be minimal. 
Indonesia, as one former member of ASEAN along with Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand,Philippines and Brunei, began to implement CAFTA in full on January 1, 2010. ASEAN countries which joined later,







  namely Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar, will implement this agreement in 2015. 
The implementation has actually started in 2004. China and ASEAN countries are required to remove import tariffs in almost all agricultural commodities. CAFTA aims to increase trade by lowering trade barriers, both tariff barriers and nontariff. The implementation of this agreement was expected to increase trade flows among member countries of CAFTA. The increase in trade its creation and trade diversion effects as the result of this agreement has been reviewed by several researchers, such as Chen and Tu (2005) which conduct a study of the Chinese 
economy. 
The increase in trade flows is also influenced by various factors such as the 
magnitude of the trading economies, the distance between countries that are generally represented by the cost of transportation, population size, and similarity of cultural and linguistic factors. Methods of analysis used to test the determination of 
these factors also vary, such as Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model, partial 
equilibrium model, simultaneous equation model, and grafity model. One of the most 
widely used instruments to test the determination of magnitude of this trade is the 
Gravity Model. 

Carrere (2006) uses a gravity model to assess ex-post regional trade agreements, 
including 130 countries and is estimated with panel data over the period 1962–1996. 
The analysis shows that regional agreements have generated a significant increase 
in trade between members, often at the expense of the rest of the world. 
Yuniarti (2007) conducts an empirical study to analyze the determinants of bilateral trade in Indonesia using a gravity approach. Analyses were performed using a panel data on 10 countries of Indonesia's main trading partners. She found that the domestic income and population have a positive influence on trade in Indonesia, while the distance negatively affects the trade. She also found that the factor endowment and the RTA (Regional Trade 
Agreement) have no significant effect on trade in Indonesia. 

Sattayunawat (2011) uses a gravity model with a Poisson Pseudo Maximum 
Likelihood (PPML) to estimate the magnitude of transportation costs and the influence of RTA on trade and FDI (Foreign Direct Investment). He found that the reduction in transportation costs can increase trade flows, with different decreasing coefficients over time. He also finds that regional trade in Southeast Asia are sensitive to distance, and that trade agreements affect trade. Another Important finding is that institutional quality, namely the security of transactions and contracts as well as the quality of public governance, have a strong influence on the increase of foreign direct 
investment entry in ASEAN countries. Srivasta and Green (1986) use a 
gravity model to analyze the determinants of international trade in 45 exporting countries and 82 importing countries. They developed a model of gravity by using the 
Trade Intensity Index (TII) as a proxy for the value of exports and add non-economic 
variables such as political instability, a common language, religion, and colonization status. They suggest that the type of products exported affect international trade. 
Chow and Zietlow (1995) use gravity model to find determinants of bilateral trade between the countries in the Asia Pacific region. The study was conducted in 1980 and 1989 at the APEC member countries (except Brunei). They make some adaptations in the gravity model using the Gross National Product to describe the 
magnitude of the exporter and importer markets. In addition, to analyze the effect of price on trading activity, they use export prices and import price indexes. Dummy variables are used to show cultural similarities between the exporter and importer Indonesian Trade Under China … countries, participating industrialized countries exporters as the New Country (NICs) and the participation of the importing country in ASEAN. They found that the market size (magnitude of GNP) of the importing country is the strongest factor that influences the trade. Level of political stability and importing countries in the ASEAN 
membership have smaller effect.

Helmers and Pasteels (2005) conducted a study using a gravity model to see the potential of trade in developing countries and countries that are in a state of economic transition. The research sample includes 132 exporting countries and 154 country importing countries for the period of 2000-2003. In contrast to the previous studies, although the model used in this study is mentioned as a model of gravity, but GDP and population variables that form the core of gravity models are not included. 
Other variables included in this test are the distance between countries and borders, import tariffs, interrelation of language, namely the political variables involved whether or not the country who trade in conflict situations, as well as geographic 
location between exporter and importer countries. The results of this study indicate that the tariff plays an important role that can hinder trade, especially for commodities such as recycled products manufacturing, rubber and plastics, as well as electronics and electrical equipment. The cost of transportation, geography and border also has significant effects. Bilateral conflicts may hamper trade but only for certain commodities, namely oil industry, motorcycle and means of transportation, while the cultural and linguistic factors have a 
positive influence on trade. Countries that use the same primary language have a 
greater trade. Chen and Tu (2005) conducted a study to build two models of gravity. This 
study uses panel data from 22 countries for the period 2000-2004. The study was conducted to analyze the effect of CAFTA implementation on China trade. The Gravity 
model used in this paper is focused on both China's bilateral trade with its trading partner along with its effects, both creation and diversion effects. They showed that the diversion effect is greater than the creation effect. 

Christie (2002), Rahman (2003), and Batra (2004) conducted studies on bilateral trade and trade potential. Christie (2002) analyzed the potential of trade in Southeast Europe using data from 1996 to 1999. The results showed that in the countries of the former Yugoslavia, the low low GDP, high unemployment, and military conflicts in the past led to distortions of trade. Croatia and former Yugoslavia trading in small quantities, but they do trade on a large scale with the appropriate entities with them in Bosnia. Simultaneously, they have a large trade potential in the future with the European Union. 
Rahman (2003) analyzed the potential of trade in Bangladesh using panel data. 
This study uses several economic factors such as the degree of openness and exchange rates. Trade intensity index shows that bilateral trade between IndiaBangaldesh is not as high as they should. Thus, there is room for expansion of mutually beneficial trade. To complete the trade between Bangladesh and India, both countries can develop vertical specialization 
through profit-sharing agreement. This allows both countries to strengthen their 
trade relations and achieve economies of scale through a focus on a specific production process in a value chain. Batra (2004) uses a gravity model to analyze the flow of world trade and use it to predict the trade in India. This study used cross-section data in 2000. The results showed that the benefits from intra-industry trade, vertical integration, and industry restructuring is greater than the gains from the expanded trade. The advantage of the SAFTA can be improved if the scope is extended in the long run by including infra-142







  structure development and investment liberalization and services. 
Cernat (2001) analyzed the effect of trade with the partial equilibrium model. 
The results obtained showed that in conditions of perfect competition, a regional trade 
agreement will increase trade volume among member countries, ie countries that 
have a cost structure that is less efficient and countries not members of which have a 
more cost efficient, which are the creation effects and the diversion effect of trade. The 
total effect of trade depends on the magnitude of both effects. Cernat (2001) uses a gravity model with panel data to analyze the effect of regional trade agreements (RTA) to 
the flow of trade between member countries of the RTA in developing countries. This 
study adds two variables to prove that the effect of creation and diversion effects resulting from RTA is efficient. The implementation of this agreement since 2004 should have increased trade flows among member countries of 
CAFTA. The magnitude of the trade increase and both trade creation and trade 
diversion effects as a result of this agreement have been reviewed by several researchers. Various studies are generally done to the economy of China (Chen and 
Tu, 2005), considering the size of China's economy and its economic influence 
throughout the world. However, empirical studies on the influence of thi agreement 
against Indonesia have not been widely discussed. This paper aims to analyze the 
effect of the implementation of CAFTA on the magnitude of trade flows and the factors of determination Indonesia's trade with ASEAN countries and China. 


METHODS 
The tool of analysis used in this study is 
developed from the gravity model. Gravity 
model has been commonly and widely used 
in analyzing trade between countries. Gravity model is used for several reasons. First, 
the gravity model is supported by various 
trade theories, including the classical trade 
theories and the new trade theories. Second, 
the gravity model can explain the influence 
of various variables of determination of 
trade, both macroeconomics variables such 
as aggregate income, per capita income, 
exchange rates, transportation costs, and 
social variables, such as population, political system, as well as cultural variables, 
such as the common language. Third, gravity models can be used to analyze the impact of a trade policy to the amount of 
trades flow. Policies that can be analyzed 
are the policy of cooperation (bilateral, 
multilateral, regional, financial, border), 
institutional policies, and other trade policies. 

Gravity Model in International Trade 
Model 
The Gravity model was first developed by 
Newton in 1687. This model shows the interaction between two particles, where the 
magnitude of the interaction is influenced 
by the mass and the distance between the 
particles. Newton's Universal Law of 
Gravitation can be written as follows: 

(1)

where F is the gravitation between two objects, M is mass, D is distance, and G is the 
constant for gravitation. 
This Newton's gravity model is then 
used to analyze the magnitude of trade 
flows between countries. Newton's gravity 
model specification for the trade can be described as follows: 

 (2) 

where Xij is export from i to j or total of 
trade, Y is size of economy (GDP, POP), 
and T is cost of trade. 


This model is then used by Tinbergen (1962) in the analysis of international 
trade. According to Reinert (2009), the use of gravity models in international trade has 
few development alternatives. In the trade model, the theory of Newtonian gravity is 
converted into natural logarithm form. 

lnGFij = lnMi+ lnMj - lnDij i  j (3) 

One form of the development of gravity 
models is to use per capita GDP of both 
countries to represent the mass of both particles (Mi
 and Mj
) while the power of gravity (GFij) between the two particles is represented by the value of trade or exports 
from country i to country j, and distance 
between the two particles (DIJ) is represented by the great circle distance calculation. Gravity models that have been developed can be written in the form of mathematical equations as follows: 

lnEij =  + 1ln( ) + 1ln( ) (4) 

where δ1 dan δ 2 < 0 indicate that the higher a country's population growth in the exporting country, the higher the production of the exporting countries, as for the importing countries, population growth indicates an increase in exports due to the larger export destinations (Reinert, 2009). 
This study aims to examine the effect of the implementation of CAFTA on 
the magnitude of the flow of Indonesia's trade with Asean countries and China for 
the period 2002-2010. The selected countries of the ASEAN are the initial members 
of the group, namely Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Brunei Darussalam. This is because at the beginning of implementation (2004), these countries 
are the first time carry out an agreement, namely by removing all tariffs for agricultural commodities are traded. ASEAN members that joint later, namely VietnamLaos, Cambodia, and Myanmar, will implement this agreement in 2015. This paper 
will analyze the trade creation effect and the diversion effect. The model used is static gravity model modified from the study Chen and Tu (2005). The creation effect from a trade is a trade transfer process from the inefficient 
supplier to efficient rest members of the Regional Trade Agreement (RTA). In this case, a dummy variable will be used to measure the impact of CAFTA on the trade. This paper uses year 2004 as the starting point, since the agreement was first implemented in that year. Data pre 2004 are used to describe the flows o trade pre CAFTA implementation. 
The model used to analyse the determinant of trade and the creation effect in this paper is as follows: 

where is volume of export across Indonesia and its trade partners.  is GDP of Indonesia and its trade partners.  is distance from Indonesia and its trade partners.  is exchange rates of Rupiah against currencies of its trade partners.  is population of countries of 
Indonesia’s trade partners.  is dummy variable, 0 for years pre CAFTA, 1 otherwise. 
0 is constant 

1, 
2, …, 
5 is elasticity is error term 


Gross Domestic Product (GDP)represents the size of a country's economy.The larger the GDP, the greater the amountof goods and services can be traded, so the
expected value of is positive. Distance isused to measure transportation costs, time costs, synchronization fees, and transaction costs. The greater the distance between
countries, the greater the transportationcosts, the less the flow of trade that occurs,
so we expect a negative value of . As aproxy for distance, this study used the distance
across the capital cities. Exchangerate is one of the factors which may affect
trade; the more expensive the currency of acountry in relative terms, the more expensive
the goods and services originatingfrom the country. This increased prices will
reduce the amount of demand for goodsand services traded, so expect has a
negative value. Population effect on trade is positive. Increase in population led to increaseddemand for goods and services for both the production and consumption activities,so the expected value for is positive.

Trade data of exports and imports across Indonesia and China and other
ASEAN members are obtained from the Publication of Foreign Trade Statistics, Indonesia
Central Bureau of Statistics. The GDP and population data are obtained from
the World Bank. Data on exchange rate are from Bank Indonesia, and the data on distance across the two countries data obtained from www.indo.com.

RESULTS DISCUSSION

The Development of Trade between Indonesia, China and the Rest of ASEAN The development of Indonesia's trade with China and initial ASEAN members, namely Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Brunei Darussalam are presented in Figure 1 to 6. Figure 1 shows a positive trend of Indonesian exports and imports with China. From the pictures, it can be seen that from 2002-2007, the Indonesian trade balance with China is still a surplus Indonesia's exports to China is higher than Indonesia's
import from China), but from the years 2008 to 2010, Indonesia's trade balance against China is deficit. Although Indonesia's export to China increases, the increase in Indonesia's import from China is still higher. The biggest increase in imports ccurred in 2008, namely 44%.

CONCLUSION


This paper investigated the implementationof CAFTA (China-Asean Free Trade Area)
on the international trade flows across Indonesia,China and the rest of ASEAN usinga gravitation model. The determinantfactors for Indonesian trade were Gross Domestic Product, distance, and population size, but not the exchange rates and trade agreement on CAFTA. Diversion and creationeffects did not significantly affect trades in Indonesia. The elasticity of Indonesia's GDP to trade flows was greater than that of China. However, with a much smaller economy size, the flow of trade gap between both countries would be widen with the increasing GDP sizes in both countries.The diversion effect of trade was much larger than the creation effect in Indonesia.
The creation effect would increase prosperity while diversion effect would reduce
welfare. Indonesian high diversion effect indicated a great reduction in welfare
occurred in Indonesia's trade. However, since the analysis suggested that the influence
of CAFTA on trade is not real, the lowering welfare was more influenced by the inefficiency in domestic industry than the result of the agreement.
Indonesia should initiate efforts to enhance the creation effect from its international
trade, such as increasing efficiency in its production sector, particularly for the
traded goods. The results of this study were empirical facts that support the opinion of Indonesian Trade Under China … 
economists over the years. Efficiency could be boosted by improving infrastructure and
bureaucracy, decreasing economic costs, and increasing competitiveness, as had
been done by China and other ASEAN members, before these countries joint the
CAFTA. Otherwise, the prosperity gap between Indonesia and China, and between
Indonesia and ASEAN members, would be widen.


REFERENCES

Batra, A. (2004), “India’s Global Trade Potential: The Gravity Model Approach,” Indian
Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER) Working Paper,
No. 1, December.

Carrère, C. (2006), “Revisiting the Effects of Regional Trade Agreements on Trade Flows
with Proper Specification of the Gravity Model,” European Economic Review, 50,
223-247.

Cernat, L. (2001), “Assessing Regional Trade Agreements: Are South-South RTAs More
Trade Diverting?” Global Economy Quarterly, 2(3), 235-259.

Chen, H. and Y. Tu (2005), “The Static Trade Effects in China under CAFTA: The Empirical Analysis Based on the Gravity Model,” Unpublished Paper, Business School, Hubei University, Wuhan, China.

Chow, M.Y. and D.S. Zietlow (1995), “The Determinants of Bilateral Trade among Asia-
Pacific Countries,” ASEAN Economic Bulletin, 11(3), 298-305.

Helmers, C. and J,M. Pasteels (2005), “TradeSim (third version), a Gravity Model for the
Calculation of Trade Potentials for Developing Countries and Economies in Transition,”

International Trade Centre (ITC) Working Paper, UNCTAD and WTO, Geneva, Switzerland.

Rahman, M.M. (2003), “Bangladesh-India Bilateral Trade: Causes of Imbalance and

Measures for Improvement,” Journal of Applied Business and Economics, 8(1), 9-28.

Reinert, K.A., (2009), “Gravity Model,” in Reinert, K.A., R.S. Rajan, A.J. Glass and L.S.

Davis (Eds), The Princeton Encyclopedia of the World Economy, Princeton University Press.

Sattayunawat, W. (2011), Gravity Model with Poisson Pseudo Maximum Likelihood
(PPML), PhD Dissertation, Faculty of the Graduate College, University of Nebraska.

Tinbergen, J. (1962), Shaping the World Economy, The 20th Century Fund, New York.

Yuniarti, D. (2007), “Analisis Determinan Perdagangan Bilateral Indonesia, Pendekatan
Gravity Model,” Jurnal Ekonomi Pembangunan, 12.2, 99-109.

http://rowlandpasaribu.wordpress.com

Smoking in the morning

Smoking in the morning

Especially accompanied by a cup of coffee, has become a ritual that hard to break. However, these habits seem to need to be stopped from smoking at the beginning of the day is more dangerous than smoking on the day or night. Research shows that smoking after waking up would increase the risk of lung cancer, neck and head. "Morning smokers have high levels of nicotine and other toxins from tobacco in his body. They are also more addicted than smokers who refrained from smoking a half hour or so after waking up," said researcher Joshua Muscat of Penn State College of Medicine. To find out why some smokers get cancer and not, Muscat and his team examined the link between cancer risk is there with the habit of first cigarette in the morning. The first study involved 4775 patients with lung cancer and 2835 of other smokers without lung cancer. Those who smoke 30 minutes after waking up 1.79 times higher risk of suffering from lung cancer than those who waited more than 60 minutes. Meanwhile, those who smoked 31-60 minutes after waking up had 1.31 times the risk compared to those who wait at least an hour. The second study involved 1055 people with brain and neck cancer and 795 people who smoked but did not suffer brain and neck cancer. Those who smoked within 30 minutes when you wake up 1.59 times the risk of brain and neck cancer compared with those who waited an hour. The risk of smokers who smoked 31-60 minutes after waking up 1.42 times than those who wait at least an hour.

Sumber : http://artikel-bahasainggris.blogspot.com/2011/08/danger-of-smoking-in-morning.html

Demokrasi

Demokrasi

Demokrasi : Antara Teori dan Pelaksanaannya di Indonesia

A. Pengantar : Arti, Makna, dan Manfaat Demokrasi

Pilihan terhadap pimpinan daerah dan negara tersebut dilangsungkan dengan suasana LUBER (langsung, umum, bebas, dan rahasia). Fenomena, di mana rakyat memilih langsung pimpinan pemerintahan ini dikenal dengan istilah ‘demokrasi’.

            Demokrasi berasal dari kata Yunani demos dan kratos. Demos artinya rakyat, kratos berarti pemerintahan. Jadi, demokrasi berarti pemerintahan rakyat, yaitu pemerintahan yang rakyatnya memegang peranan yang sangat menentukan.

Manfaat Demokrasi

            Manfaat demokrasi di antaranya adalah sebagai berikut :

1. Kesetaraan sebagai Warga Negara.

2. Memenuhi Kebutuhan-kebutuhan Umum.

3. Pluralisme dan Kompromi.

4. Menjamin Hak-hak Dasar.

5. Pembaruan Kehidupan Sosial.

B. Nilai-nilai Demokrasi

            Nilai-nilai dari demokrasi membutuhkan hal-hal berikut :

1. Kesadaran akan pluralisme.

2. Sikap yang jujur dan pikiran yang sehat.

3. Demokrasi membutuhkan kerja sama antarwarga masyarakat dan sikap serta itikad baik.

4. Demokrasi membutuhkan sikap kedewasaan.

5. Demokrasi membutuhkan pertimbangan moral.

Demokrasi yang dilakukan dengan lima nilai bagaimana disebutkan, yaitu menghargai keberagaman, dilakukan dengan jujur dan menggunakan akal sehat, dilaksanakan dengan kerja sama antarwarga negara, didasari sikap dewasa dan mempertimbangkan moral, maka setiap keputusan dan tingkah laku akan efisien dan efektif serta pencapaian tujuan masyarakat adil dan makmur akan lebih mudah tercapai.

C. Prinsip dan Parameter Demokrasi

Menurut Robert A. Dahl terdapat 7 prinsip demokrasi yang harus ada dalam sistem pemerintahan, yaitu :

1. Adanya kontrol atau kendali atas keputusan pemerintahan.

2. Adanya pemilihan yang teliti dan jujur.

3. Adanya hak memilih dan dipilih.

4. Adanya kebebasan menyatakan pendapat tanpa ancaman.

5. Adanya kebebasan mengakses informasi.

6. Adanya kebebasan berserikat yang terbuka.

Parameter untuk mengukur demokrasi dapat dilihat dari 4 hal, yaitu :

1. Pembentukan pemerintahan melalui pemilu.

2. Sistem pertanggungjawaban pemerintahan.

3. Pengaturan sistem dan distribusi kekuasaan negara.

4. Pengawasan ole rakyat.

D. Jenis-jenis Demokrasi

Demokrasi ada beberapa jenis yang disebabkan perkembangan dalam pelaksanaannya di berbagai kondisi dan tempat.

1. Demokrasi Berdasarkan Cara Menyampaikan Pendapat

a. Demokrasi Langsung.

Dalam demokrasi langsung rakyat diikutsertakan dalam proses pengambilan keputusan untuk menjalankan kebijakan pemerintahan.

b. Demokrasi tidak langsung atau demokrasi perwakilan.

            Demokrasi ini dijalankan oleh rakyat melalui wakil rakyat yang dipilihnya melalui Pemilu.

c. Demokrasi perwakilan dengan sistem pengawasan langsung dari rakyat.

Demokrasi ini merupakan campuran antara demokrasi langsung dengan demokrasi perwakilan. Referendum adalah pemungutan suara untuk mengetahui kehendak rakyat secara langsung. Referendum diklasifikasikan menjadi 3, yaitu :

1. Referendum wajib.

2. Referendum tidak wajib.

3. Referendum konsultatif.

2. Demokrasi Berdasarkan Titik Perhatian atau Prioritas

a. Demokrasi formal.

Demokrasi ini secara hukum menempatkan semua orang dalam kedudukan yang sama dalam bidang politik, tanpa mengurangi kesenjangan ekonomi.

b. Demokrasi material.

            Demokrasi material memandang manusia mempunyai kesamaan dalam bidang sosial-ekonomi, sehingga persamaan bidang politik tidak menjadi prioritas.

c. Demokrasi campuran.

            Demokrasi ini merupakan campuran dari kedua demokrasi tersebut di atas. Demokrasi ini berupaya menciptakan kesejahteraan seluruh rakyat dengan menempatkan persamaan derajat dan hak setiap orang.

3. Demokrasi Berdasarkan Prinsip Ideologi

a. Demokrasi liberal.

            Demokrasi ini memberikan kebebasan yang luas pada individu.

b. Demokrasi rakyat atau demokrasi proletar.

            Demokrasi ini bertujuan menyejahterakan rakyat.

4. Demokrasi Berdasarkan Wewenang dan Hubungan antar Alat Kelengkapan Negara

a. Demokrasi sistem parlementer.

b. Demokrasi sistem presidensial.

E. Pelaksanaan Demokrasi di Indonesia

1. Demokrasi Parlementer (Liberal)

Pada masa berlakunya Demokrasi Parlementer (1945-1959), kehidupan politik dan pemerintahan tidak stabil sehingga program dari suatu pemerintahan tidak dapat dilaksanakan dengan baik dan berkesinambungan.

2. Demokrasi Terpimpin

Demokrasi Terpimpin lahir dari keinsyafan, kesadaran dan keyakinan terhadap keburukan yang diakibatkan oleh praktik Demokrasi Parlementer (liberal) yang melahirkan terpecahnya masyarakat, baik dalam kehidupan politik maupun dalam tatanan kehidupan ekonomi.

3. Demokrasi Pancasila pada Era Orde Baru

Demokrasi Pancasila mengandung arti bahwa dalam menggunakan hak-hak demokrasi haruslah disertai rasa tanggung jawab kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa menurut agama dan kepercayaan masing-masing, menjungjung tinggi nilai-nilai kemanusiaan sesuai dengan martabat dan harkat manusia, haruslah menjamin persatuan dan kesatuan bangsa, dan harus dimanfaatkan untuk mewujudkan keadilan sosial.

F. Mengembangkan Sikap Demokrasi

            Di antara penyimpangan yang dilakukan penguasa Orde Baru, khususnya yang berkaitan dengan Demokrasi Pancasila, yaitu :

a. Penyelenggaraan pemilu yang tidak jujur dan tidak adil.

b. Pengekangan kebebasan berpolitik bagi PNS.

c. Kekuasaan kehakiman (yudikatif) yang tidak mandiri karena para hakim adalah anggota PNS Departemen Kehakiman.

d. Kurangnya jaminan kebebasan mengemukakan pendapat.

e. Sistem kepartaian yang tidak otonom dan berat sebelah.

f. Maraknya praktik kolusi, korupsi, dan nepotisme.

g. Menteri-menteri dan gubernur diangkat menjadi anggota MPR.

4. Demokrasi Langsung pada Era Orde Reformasi

Orde Reformasi ini merupakan konsensus untuk mengadakan demokratisasi dalam segala bidang kehidupan. Demokrasi yang dijalankan pada masa reformasi ini masih tetap Demokrasi Pancasila. Perbedaannya terletak pada aturan pelaksanaan dan praktik penyelenggaraan. Berdasarkan peraturan perundang-undangan dan praktik pelaksanaan demokrasi, terdapat beberapa perubahan pelaksanaan demokrasi pada Orde Reformasi sekarang ini, yaitu :

a. Pemilihan umum lebih demokratis.

b. Partai politik lebih mandiri.

c. Pengaturan HAM.

d. Lembaga demokratis lebih berfungsi.

Asas arah pandang wawasan nusantara

ASAS WAWASAN NUSANTARA

Asas Wawasan Nusantara dan Arah pandang wawasan nusantara

1.    Asas Wawasan Nusantara

Asas wawasan nusantara ada 7, yaitu :

1.  Kepentingan yang sama

2.  Tujuan sama

3.  Keadilan

4.  Kejujuran

5.  Solidaritas

6.  Kerjasama

    7.  Kesetiaan terhadap ikrar atau kesepakatan bersama demi terpeliharanya   

     Persatuan dan kesatuan dalam kebhinekaan.

 2.    Arah pandang wawasan nusantara

1) Arah pandang ke Dalam

      Arah pandang ke dalam bertujuan menjamin perwujudan persatuan kesatuan segenap aspek kehidupan nasional, baik aspek alamiah maupun bangsa aspek sosial. Arah pandang ke dalam mengandung arti bahwa bangsa Indonesia harus peka dan berusaha untuk mencegah dan mengatasi sedini mungkin faktor-faktor penyebab timbulnya disintegrasinya bangsa dan harus mengupayakan tetap terbina dan terpilihnya persatuan dan kesatuan dalam kebinekaan.

     2) Arah pandang ke Luar

Arah pandang luar ditujukan demi terjaminnya kepentingan nasional dalam dunia yang serba berubah maupun kehidupan dalam negeri serta dalam melaksanakan ketertiban dunia berdasarkan kemerdekaan, perdamaian abadi, dan keadilan sosial, serta kerja sama dan saling hormat menghormati. Arah pandangan ke luar mengandung arti bahwa dalam kehidupan internasionalnya, bangsa Indonesia harus berusaha mengamankan kepentingan nasionalnya dalam semua aspek kehidupan, baik politik, ekonomi, sosial budaya maupun pertahanan dan keamanan demi tercapainya tujuan nasional sesuai dengan yang tertera pada pembukaan UUD 1945.

Pengertian dan Tujuan Wawasan Nusantara

Wawasan nusantara merupakan cara pandang bangsa Indonesia mengenai diri dan tanah airnya sebagai negara kepulauan dengan segala aspek kehidupan yang beragam. Dengan kata lain, wawasan nusantara merupakan cara pandang dan sikap bangsa Indonesia mengenai diri sendiri dan lingkungannya yang serba beragam dan bernilai strategis dengan mengutamakan persatuan dan kesatuan bangsa serta kesatuan wilayah dalam menyelenggarakan kehidupan masyarakat, berbangsa dan bernegara, untuk mencapai tujuan nasional.

Tujuan wawasan nusantara mencakup:

1. Tujuan ke dalam
Tujuan wawasan nusantara ke dalam adalah mewujudkan kesatuan dalam segenap aspek kehidupan nasional, yaitu aspek alamiah dan aspek sosial. Aspek alamiah meliputi letak geografis dan posisi silang SDA, serta keadaan dan kemampuan penduduk (demografi). Adapun aspek sosial terdiri dari ideologi, politik, ekonomi, sosial budaya dan pertahanan keamanan.
2. Tujuan ke luar
Tujuan wawasan nusantara ke luar yaitu ikut serta mewujudkan kesejahteraan, ketertiban dan perdamaian bagi seluruh umat manusia. Upaya ini dilakukan dengan berperan serta mewujudkan ketertiban dan perdamaian dunia berdasarkan kemerdekaan, keadilan sosial dan perdamaian abadi dengan mengadakan kerja sama di forum internasional dalam upaya mewujudkan kepentingan nasional indonesia di dunia.

Kaitan Wawasan Nusantara dengan Ketahanan Nasional

Wawasan nusantara sangat berkaitan erat dengan ketahanan nasional. Karena keduanya berfungsi sebagai doktrin dasar pengaturan kehidupan nasional. Doktrin adalah prinsip atau teori yang diajarkan, dianjurkan dan diterima sebagai kebenaran untuk dijadikan pedoman dalam melaksanakan kegiatan dalam usaha mencapai tujuan.

Wawasan nusantara yang merupakan suatu kesamaan pandangan suatu bangsa mengenai diri dan lingkungannya ditujukan agar terdapat ketahanan nasional yang kuat dari bangsa tersebut. Dengan kata lain, wawasan nusantara dapat memperkuat dan mempermudah pengelolaan ketahanan nasional bangsa.

Dengan ketahanan nasional yang kuat otomatis akan memiliki kekuatan politik yang kuat. Dengan adanya politik yang jelas mengenai perencanaan, pengembangan, pemeliharaan serta penggunaan potensi nasional untuk mencapai tujuan nasional.

Latar Belakang Konsepsi Nusantara

Latar belakang yang mempengaruhi tumbuhnya konsepsi wawasan nusantara adalah sebagai berikut:
A. Aspek Historis
Dari segi sejarah, bahwa bangsa indonesia menginginkan menjadi bangsa yang bersatu dengan wilayah yang utuh adalah karena dua hal yaitu:

1.    Kita pernah mengalami kehidupan sebagai bangsa yang terjajah adalah penderitaan, kesengsaraan, kemiskinan, dan kebodohan. Penjajah juga menciptakan perpecahan dalam diri bangsa Indonesia, yaitu dengan politik Devide et Impera yang membuat orang-orang Indonesia justru melawan bangsanya sendiri. Dalam setiap perjuangan melawan penjajah selalu ada pahlawan, tetapi juga ada pengkhianat bangsa.

2.    Kita pernah memiliki wilayah yang terpisah-pisah, secara historis wilayah Indonesia adalah wilayah bekas jajahan Belanda. Wilayah Hindia Belanda ini masih terpisah-pisah berdasarkan ketentuan ordonansi 1939 dimana laut territorial Hindia Belanda adalah sejauh 3 mil. Dengan adanya ordonansi tersebut, laut atau perairan yang ada diluar 3 mil tersebut merupakan lautan bebas dan berlaku sebagai perairan internasional. Sebagai bangsa yang terpecah-pecah dan terjajah, hal ini jelas merupakan kerugian besar bagi bangsa Indonesia. Keadaan tersebut tidak mendukung kita dalam mewujudkan bangsa yang merdeka, bersatu dan berdaulat. Untuk bisa keluar dari keadaan tersebut kita membutuhkan semangat kebangsaan yang melahirkan visi bangsa yang bersatu. Upaya mewujudkan wilayah Indonesia sebagai wilayah yang utuh tidak lagi terpisah baru terjadi 12 tahun kemudian setelah Indonesia merdeka yaitu ketika perdana menteriDjuanda mengeluarkan pernyataan yang selanjutnya disebut sebagai Deklarasi Djuanda pada 13 Desember 1957. Isi pokok dari deklarasi tersebut menyatakan bahwa laut territorial Indonesia tidak lagi sejauh 3 mil melainkan selebar 12 mil dan secara resmi menggantikan Ordonansi 1939. Deklarasi Djuanda juga dikukuhkan dalam UU no.4/Pvp Tahun 1960 tentang perairan Indonesia yang berisi:

1)     Perairan Indonesia adalah laut wilayah Indonesia beserta perairan pedalaman Indonesia.

2)    Laut wilayah Indonesia adalah jalur laut 12 mil laut.

3)     Perairan pedalaman Indonesia adalah semua perairan yang terletak pada sisi dalam dari garis dasar.

Keluarnya deklarasi Djuanda melahirkan konsepsi wawasan nusantara dimana laut tidak lagi sebagai pemisah, tetapi sebagai penghubung. UU mengenai perairan Indonesia diperbaharui dengan UU no.6 Tahun 1996 tentang perairan Indonesia. Deklarasi Djuanda juga diperjuangkan dalam forum internasional melalui perjuangan panjang akhirnya konferensi PBB tanggal 30 April menerima The United Nation Convention On The Law Of the Sea (UNCLOS). Berdasarkan konvensi hukum laut 1982 tersebut Indonesia diakui sebagai negara dengan asas negara kepulauan (Archipelago State).

B. Aspek Geografis dan Sosial Budaya
Dari segi geografis dan sosial budaya, Indonesia merupakan negara bangsa dengan wilayah dan posisi yang unik serta bangsa yang heterogen. Keunikan wilayah dan heterogenitas itu antara lain sebagai berikut:

     i.        Indonesia bercirikan negara kepulauan atau maritim.

    ii.        Indonesia terletak antara dua benua dan dua samudra (posisi silang).

   iii.        Indonesia terletak pada garis khatulistiwa.

  iv.        Indonesia berada pada iklim tropis dengan dua musim.

    v.        Indonesia menjadi pertemuan dua jalur pegunungan yaitu sirkumpasifik   dan mediterania.

  vi.        Wilayah subur dan dapat dihuni.

 vii.        Kaya akan flora dan fauna dan SDA.

viii.        Memiliki etnik yang banyak sehingga memiliki kebudayaan yang beragam.

  ix.        Memiliki jumlah penduduk dalam jumlah yang besar.

C. Aspek Geopolitis dan Kepentingan Nasional
Prinsip geopolitik bahwa bangsa Indonesia memandang wilayahnya sebagai ruang hidupnya namun bangsa Indonesia tidak ada semangat untuk memperluas wilayah negara Indonesia senantiasa satu dan utuh. Kepentingan nasional itu merupakan turunan lanjut dari cita-cita nasional, tujuan nasional, maupun visi nasional.

Tantangan Implementasi

Kedudukan, Fungsi, dan Tujuan

      Kedudukan

a.    Wawasan Nusantara sebagai wawasan nasional bangsa Indonesia yang di yakini kebenarannya.

b.   Wawasan Nusantara dalam Paradigma nasional dapat dilihat sebagai berikut :

1.    Pancasila sebagi falsafah, ideology bangsa dan dasar Negara yang berkedudukan sebagai landasan idiil.

2.    Undang-undang Dasar 1945 sebagai landasan Konstitusional.

3.    Wawasan Nusantara sebagai landasan visional.

4.    Ketahanan Nasional sebagai Landasan konsepsional.

5.    GBHN sebagai politik dan strategi nasional yang berkedudukan sebagai landasan operasional.

      Fungsi

Wawasan Nusantar Berfungsi sebagai pedoman, motivasi, dorongan, serta rrambu-rambu dalam menentukan kebijaksanaan, keputusan, tindakan dan perbuatan bagi penyelenggara negara dari tingkat pusat hingga tingkat daerah.

      Tujuan

Wawasan nusantara bertujuan mewujudkan nasionalisme yang tinggi di segala aspek kehidupan rakyat Indonesia yang lebih mengutamakan kepentingan nasional diatas kepentingan individu maupun golongan.
Sebagai visi dan cara pandang nasional Indonesia, wawasan nusantara harus dijadikan arahan, pedoman, acuan, dan tuntutan bagi setiap individu bangsa Indonesia dalam membangun dan memelihara tuntutan bangsa dan Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia. Wawasan Nusantara menjadi pola yang mendasari cara berpikir, bersikap, dan bertindak dalam rangka menghadapi, menyikapi, dan menangani setiap permasalahan yang menyangkut kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara.
Implementasi Wawasan Nusantara dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara meliputi bidang-bidang sebagai berikut:

1)     Implementasi Wawasan Nusantara dalam kehidupan politik akan menciptakan iklim penyelenggaraan Negara yang sehat dan dinamis. Hal tersebut nampak dalam wujud pemerintahan yang kuat, aspiratif dan terpercaya yang dibangun sebagai penjelmaan rakyat.

2)    Implementasi Wawasan Nusantara dalam kehidupan ekonomi akan menciptakan tatanan ekonomi yang benar-benar menjamin pemenuhan dan peningkatan kesejahteraan dan kemakmuran rakyat secara adil dan merata.

3)     Implementasi Wawasan Nusantara dalam kehidupan social budaya akan menciptakan sikap batiniah dan lahiriah yang mengakui,menerima, dan dan menghormati segala bentuk perbedaan atau kebhinnekaan sebagai kenyataan hidup sekaligus karunia pencipta.

4)    Implementasi Wawasan Nusantara dalam kehidupan Hankam akan menumbuhkan kesadaran cinta tanah air dan bangsa yang lebih lanjutkan membentuk sikap bela negara pada setiap warga Negara Indonesia.

Dalam setiap pembinaan seluruh aspek kehidupan nasional, Wawasan nusantara harus menjadi nilai yang menjiwai segenap peraturan perundang-undangan yang berlaku bagi setiap strata di seluruh wilayah nusantara.

Wawasan nusantara merupakan cara pandang dan sikap bangsa Indonesia mengenai diri sendiri dan lingkungannya yang serba beragam dan bernilai strategis dengan mengutamakan persatuan dan kesatuan bangsa serta kesatuan wilayah dalam menyelenggarakan kehidupan masyarakat, berbangsa dan bernegara, untuk mencapai tujuan nasional. Nilai-nilai pancasila mewarnai konsep Wawasan Nusantara sebagai wawasan nasional. Nilai-nilai luhur yang terkandung dalam pancasila sebagai falsafah hidup bangsa memberikan karekteristik yang berbeda bagi konsep wawasan nusantara yang dimiliki oleh bangsa Indonesia.

Hakikat dari wawasan Nusantara adalah menjaga keutuhan nusantara, dengan memandang secara utuh dan menyeluruh dalam lingkup nusantara demi kepentingan nasional. Wawasan nusantara memiliki asas kepentingan bersama, keadilan, kejujuran, solidaritas,. Kerjasam, dan kesetiaan terhadap kesepakatan. Wawasan Nusantara juga memiliki arah pandang Kedalam dan Keluar yang bertujuan untuk menjamin perwujudan dan keutuhan Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia. Wawasan Nusantara berkedudukan sebagai wawasan nasional bangsa Indonesia.

Wawasan nusantara dalam paradigma nasional memiliki kedudukan yang setara dengan pancasila, UUD 1945, Ketahanan Nasional, dan GBHN dengan menjalankan fungsi yang berbeda.Wawasan Nusantara berfungsi sebagai acuan, pedoman, dan dorongan kebijaksanaan yang menentukan kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara. Sasaran Implementasi wawasan nusantara meliputi bidang politik, Hankam, Ekonomi dan Sosial Budaya. Semua sasaran ini bertujuan menciptakan kehidupan berbangsa dan masyarakat Indonesia yang setara dan seimbang sehingga tujuan pembangunan nasional dapat tercapai.

SUMBER :

http://harenzone.blogspot.com/2010/03/bab-iii-wawasan-nusantara-asas-arah.html

http://arisetiawanholic.wordpress.com/2011/03/13/wawasan-nusantara/

http://gendilq.blogspot.com/2011/04/asas-wawasan-nusantara-dan-arah-pandang.html

http://uwiewietha.blogspot.com/2012/06/asas-wawasan-nusantara.html